Who are the children who comprise gifted programs today? Do gifted education classrooms reflect the culture of the general school? When culturally diverse students are identified as gifted, are they choosing to participate in gifted services? Once identified and served, are they retained in the gifted education program? This review of the literature will attempt to address these questions and provide insight into ways that schools might more effectively recruit, identify, and retain gifted children from culturally diverse backgrounds in gifted programs.
Articles published since 2002 in Gifted Child Today, Roeper Review, Exceptional Children, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, Journal of Advanced Academics, and Gifted Child Quarterly were examined in this review. Articles needed to focus on recruiting, identifying, and retaining gifted students from diverse cultural backgrounds in gifted education programs. Using these criteria, 32 articles were found. Of these, 8 articles were descriptive and 24 were empirical. Of the empirical articles, 15 were qualitative and 9 were quantitative. Authors considered a variety of factors as roadblocks in the recruitment, identification, and retention of culturally diverse students in gifted education.
Recruitment and Identification
Students are sometimes hesitant to participate in gifted programs; tests and identification instruments can be culturally biased toward the dominant culture; and teacher nominations, or the lack thereof, can play a significant role in who is nominated for gifted program services.
Students from diverse backgrounds who are identified as gifted often find it difficult to decide whether or not to participate in gifted programs, weighing benefits of the program compared to their social standing with peers. In many instances they experience alienation because participation in a gifted program can be interpreted by their cultural peer group as turning away from their own culture and taking on the White culture. One study (Ford & Whiting, 2010), found that culturally diverse students feel less stigmatized when participating in a supplemental gifted program outside of school rather than being separated from social peers during the school day.
Children from diverse cultures are not as likely to be recommended by their classroom teachers for gifted programs in their schools (Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson, 2010). Deficit thinking on the part of educators can negatively affect culturally and linguistically diverse students by impacting the engagement that takes place with the teacher and may result in policies that are discriminatory. Teacher referral, or the lack thereof, is a critical factor in the underrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in gifted education programs. The low number of teacher referrals could be attributed to the lack of professional development in multicultural training for teachers and miscommunication and a lack of cultural understanding encountered by students and their families (Ford, Grantham, & Whiting, 2008).
Retention
When culturally diverse students enter a gifted program there is concern they may not continue with the gifted services due to the negative reaction of peers, deficit thinking of teachers influencing the treatment of students, and parental concern that the social and emotional needs of their children are not being met due to the lack of cultural diversity in the program (Ford, 2004; Shaunessy, McHatton, Hughes, Brice, & Ratliff, 2007). Parents of culturally diverse gifted students can positively impact their child’s education experience by becoming involved at school, being an advocate, working with teachers, joining teacher and parent organizations or starting such an organization, becoming involved in diverse organizations or activities for the child, working with school administrators to have a diverse staff, helping find a mentor for the child, and sharing the reality of discrimination and prejudice that may be encountered (Ford, 2004).
Success in gifted programs for culturally diverse students can be achieved when the program is designed to meet the strengths, abilities, and interests of those students (Grantham, 2004; Harmon, 2002; Hébert, 2001; Henfield, Moore, & Wood, 2008; Kaylor & Flores, 2007; Kitano & Lewis, 2007; Kitano & Pedersen, 2002; Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson, 2010; Uresti, Goertz, & Bernal, 2002). Gifted education, unlike special education, does not have a federal mandate. As a result, definitions of giftedness are inconsistent, identification processes differ, and program designs vary—not only across the country but also among school districts within each state. Supporters of gifted programs defend gifted students’ needs by pointing out that these students have exceptionalities just like those who participate in special education, and if the gifted students’ needs are not addressed they may never realize their full potential (Ford,et al., 2008). Definitions of giftedness at the state and local levels should be examined in order to expand the descriptors used for identification so underrepresentation of diverse groups will not persist.
Culturally diverse students not only need to have their abilities addressed or challenged, but they also need to have their diversity recognized through affirmation and respect (Ford, 2004). Gifted students who come from diverse backgrounds benefit when the curriculum is differentiated to meet their needs. Those needs may include highlighting different cultures and perspectives in the curriculum.
Various dimensions of culture demand investigation and research to enhance the teacher’s awareness and benefit the educator by allowing flexibility in dealing with cultural needs of diverse students such as personal vs. social responsibility, concept of time, concept of self, and styles of communication. Culture-blindness takes place when all students are treated the same and differences are not acknowledged; however, instead of practicing culture-blindness, teachers should acknowledge and explore the differences that make-up the diversity within their classrooms (Milner & Ford, 2007). de Wet and Gubbins (2011) studied the beliefs teachers held regarding culturally, linguistically, and economically diverse (CLED) students. In their study it was apparent that a difference could be seen in the opinions of teachers from states with gifted education mandates and those from states that had no mandates. Teachers from states with no mandates felt that CLED students benefited from participating in gifted services in contrast to teachers from states with mandates who, for the most part, did not feel that CLED students benefited from participation in gifted services (de Wet & Gubbins, 2011). Culturally responsive classrooms (CRCs) not only are culture-centered but also child centered. In order for a classroom to address the needs of culturally diverse students, five components must be put into practice: (a) culturally responsive teaching philosophy, (b) culturally responsive learning environment, (c) culturally responsive curriculum, (d) culturally responsive instruction, and (e) culturally responsive assessment (Ford, 2010a). Teachers can be more effective in their instruction and better meet the affective needs of students when implementing the five components for a culturally responsive classroom.
Educators of African American students must be proactive in understanding how racial identity can influence gifted African Americans’ achievement in school (Ford & Whiting, 2010). Information regarding the cultural perspective of African Americans can be used by educators to better facilitate the identification and retention of gifted African American youth in gifted programs (Henfield, et al., 2008). Henfield and colleagues (2008) offer recommendations to aid teachers, school counselors, principals, and parents in providing effective programs and procedures for African American students in gifted programs. Most research concludes that African American students are underrepresented in gifted programs due to underperforming on tests, and lack of recruitment, however, further consideration should be made regarding the retention of African American students in gifted programs. When African American students do not have a positive racial identity they may be more likely to not participate in gifted education programs (Ford & Whiting, 2010).
Similar to the African American population, the Hispanic/Latino population is also underrepresented in gifted programs. Numerous factors contribute to this underrepresentation, including lack of support from communities in teaching them how to be successful in school (Reyes, 2007) and educators’ failure to communicate with them in their native language when assessing their abilities (Shaunessy, et al., 2007). As with other ethnic populations, research points to the notion that instruments used in the identification of gifted Hispanic students are oftentimes biased and do not provide the opportunity for these students to accurately demonstrate their abilities (Lohman, 2005b; Naglieri & Ford, 2003).
Asian Americans make up a small portion of diverse culture groups in America yet they are of interest to some researchers due to their educational and economic achievement (Yoon & Gentry, 2009). The representation of Asian Americans in gifted programs can be affected by identification processes, generations impacted by acculturation processes, and academic motivation those students possess (Yoon & Gentry, 2009). The education system can help the academic success of gifted Asian and Pacific American students by taking their learning styles into consideration, appreciating their perspective in problem-solving, being conscious of the history and immigration process their families have experienced, developing career options, and including Asian and Pacific Americans accurately in curriculum (Kitano & DiJiosia, 2000).
Students enjoy acceptance they receive from peers. We all do. When the acceptance fades and is replaced by rejection, negative emotional issues for gifted students from culturally diverse backgrounds may be the result. In many cases, little opportunity may exist for them to experience both achievement and social acceptance among their peers. The academic achievement of gifted students can be impacted by social identity which could include negative stereotypes regarding academic success (Worrell, 2007).
For various reasons, students from diverse backgrounds, both culturally and linguistically, are not represented in gifted programs in the same manner as White students. The lack of recruitment, identification, and retention of gifted students from diverse ethnic backgrounds are pressing issues that can impact not just the educational system, but also the community—both locally and at large. If the cultural diversity of school populations is increasing, then cultural sensitivity should be taken into account when considering identification, recruitment, and retention of gifted students from culturally diverse backgrounds.
Literature Review
Clasen, D. R. (2006). Project STREAM: A 13-year follow-up of a pre-college program for middle- and high-school underrepresented gifted. Roeper Review, 29, 55–63.
This study examined identification and programming of underrepresented gifted students. Project STREAM had these major components: (a) identification of gifted minority students and in-school accommodations to meet their educational needs; (b) a summer campus residency; (c) out-of-school offering and Saturday classes at area universities; and (d) at least one visit per semester to an institution of higher learning. The students identified for this program were from four school districts: urban, suburban, mid-size, and rural. The follow-up sample 13 years later included 95 African American, 48 Latino, 11 Southeast Asian, and four Native American students who were identified as gifted in sixth or seventh grade. There were 84 girls and 74 boys. Data collected included school documents, surveys, and interviews regarding career information. The content analysis of the qualitative data indicated that a sense of community was an important program characteristic of Project STREAM. Participants reported making lifelong friends who helped shape future aspirations as a result of being in the program. The author supported the value of multiple forms of identification (specifically in problem-
solving), teacher identification of leadership ability, and students’ grade point average.
Carpenter, D. M., II, & Ramirez, A. (2007). More than one gap: Dropout rate gaps between and among Black, Hispanic, and White students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19, 32–64.
The achievement gap, traditionally measured by test scores, also can be documented by drop-out behavior. Examining drop-out behavior among Black, White, and Hispanic students, with a particular focus on gaps within groups and not just between Whites and minorities, shows a clearer picture of the achievement gap. The results of our study show multiple achievement gaps both between and within groups, ultimately concluding that within-group gaps were often more significant than gaps between groups. Through hierarchical linear modeling, we found two common predictors for all three groups—being held back and number of suspensions. Hispanic and White students showed three additional predictors in common—time spent on homework, gender, and family composition. White and Black students shared only one common predictor beyond suspensions and being held back: parental involvement. Black and Hispanic students shared no additional common predictors. Finally, race/ethnicity generally proved not to be a significant predictor of dropping out. Gaps within groups may be more significant than those between groups. Such differences further reinforce our concern about the practice of establishing policy initiatives that conflate all minority group students into a monolithic whole. Our research suggests that policy makers and school leaders should craft drop-out prevention policies and programs with sufficient flexibility to allow school-level personnel to individualize said policies and practices based on local conditions (Author abstract.)
de Wet, C. F., & Gubbins, E. (2011). Teachers’ beliefs about culturally, linguistically, and economically diverse gifted students: A quantitative study. Roeper Review, 33, 97–108.
This quantitative study looked at the beliefs and attitudes teachers hold regarding gifted students from diverse cultural, linguistic, and economic backgrounds. The researchers used the Teachers’ Beliefs About Culturally, Linguistically, and Economically Diverse Gifted Students Survey to assess teacher beliefs and attitudes toward culturally diverse students. The study included a random and stratified group of 4,000 teachers surveyed from four states with mandates for gifted education, and four states with no mandates for gifted education. Differences between teachers from states with gifted education mandates and those from states with no mandate were apparent on sections of the survey.
Ford, D. Y. (2004). A challenge for culturally diverse families of gifted children: Forced between achievement or affiliation. Gifted Child Today, 27(3), 26–65.
This article provided a glimpse into the personal experiences of the author, Donna Ford, and highlighted her research on the topic of gifted children from diverse backgrounds. She offered advice on how parents can positively impact their gifted child’s needs both at home and at school.
Ford, D. Y. (2010a). Culturally responsive classrooms: Affirming culturally different gifted students. Gifted Child Today, 33(1), 50–53.
In this article, the author addressed what it means to be culturally responsive as a classroom teacher. Reference is made to the common issue of cultural differences being ignored when, instead, such differences should be acknowledged. In the past, school populations were predominately White; however, as recently as 2005 the population for culturally diverse students in schools has increased to roughly 45%. The author addressed the issue that most teachers are White females, which can have negative implications for the growing population of diverse gifted learners in school today. In addition, she recommended five components for a culturally responsive classroom: (a) culturally responsive teaching philosophy, (b) culturally responsive learning environment, (c) culturally responsive curriculum, (d) culturally responsive instruction, and (e) culturally responsive assessment. Differences and miscommunication between the teacher and students can be decreased when teachers provide a child-centered learning environment by using the five components of a culturally responsive classroom.
Ford, D. Y. (2010b). Underrepresentation of culturally different students in gifted education: Reflections about current problems and recommendations for the future. Gifted Child Today, 33(3), 31–35.
This article discussed underrepresentation of African American and Hispanic students in gifted education and Advanced Placement classes. The underrepresentation not only has a negative impact on students, but also on their families, education systems, local communities, and at the state/national level. There are four key issues that continue to present roadblocks to diverse student representation in gifted education: (a) low teacher referral, (b) differences of performance on typical intelligence or achievement tests, (c) policies and procedures for placement that may be outdated, and (d) the social-emotional issues that diverse students and their families take into consideration for placement. Teachers need to address deficit thinking and the colorblind philosophy in order to decrease cultural misconceptions that perpetuate the underrepresentation of African Americans and Hispanics in gifted education.
Ford, D. Y., Grantham, T. C., & Whiting, G. W. (2008). Culturally and linguistically diverse students in gifted education: Recruitment and retention issues. Exceptional Children, 74, 289–306.
Students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have been underrepresented in gifted programs. The article focused not only on how to increase diverse students’ participation in the program, but also on retaining them in the program. Educators are only one piece of the picture but they play an important role, which means they must alter their deficit thinking regarding culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students. In addition to deficit thinking affecting recruitment of ethnically diverse students into gifted programs, it also negatively affects retention of students in the programs. The article highlighted issues such as definitions of gifted, identification processes, and programming—all of which have been and will continue to be barriers to appropriate services for ethnically diverse gifted students unless significant changes are made.
Ford, D. Y., & Whiting, G. W. (2010). Beyond testing: Social and psychological considerations in recruiting and retaining gifted black students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34, 131–155.
African American students have been underrepresented in gifted programs for many years. The authors of this article suggested that in order to reverse the underrepresentation, the identification process needs to be evaluated—including the tests and instruments used in identification. African American males seem to be those who have been most affected. This article focused on developing ways to identify and retain more African American students in gifted education. A factor in doing so is to evaluate the social and emotional needs of those students, including the attitudes of their peers and the racial identity the students hold of themselves. Consideration of gender should also be taken into account with gifted African American males and females.
Grantham, T. C. (2004). Rocky Jones: Case study of a high-achieving Black male’s motivation to participate in gifted classes. Roeper Review, 26, 208–216.
The purpose of this case study was to explore a Black male’s motivation to participate in advanced academic programs. The subject, Rocky, was in ninth grade and was identified as gifted in kindergarten. He was only one of two identified gifted Black males out of the 123 identified students at a semi-rural Virginia high school. Data collection included participant-focused interviews and collection of archival records over a period of four months. Rocky felt that he was respected by his peers and was able to maintain friendships with both White and Black peers. Rocky acknowledged that his teachers’ high expectations also were an important influence in his life. School environmental influences also contributed to his favorable perceptions of doing well at school by recognizing his achievement during his elementary and middle school years.
Harmon, D. (2002). They won’t teach me: The voices of gifted African American inner-city students. Roeper Review, 24, 68–75.
This study examined the effects of bussing from a lower income, predominantly minority, elementary school to a middle to upper income, predominantly majority elementary school. African American students who were bussed were asked questions about their relationships with their classmates, their classroom environment, and their relationships with their teachers. Students were angry about attending another school and receiving harassment and were rejected by their white peers. They mostly stayed with their own minority group. To the contrary, in their other school, they felt more comfortable and did not experience the harassment. They viewed ineffective teachers (i. e., those who won’t teach them) as having low expectations, lacking an understanding, and providing unfair and unequal treatment. On the other hand, effective teachers had high expectations, understood the culture, and provided fair and equal treatment. Three of the effective teachers were interviewed and spent considerable time developing activities and lessons that presented knowledge from multiple perspectives, required respect in their classrooms, and provided community role models.
Hébert, T. P. (2001). “If I had a new notebook, I know things would change”: Bright underachieving young men in urban classrooms. Gifted Child Quarterly, 45, 174–194.
This study examined the lives of gifted males and how their urban life experiences influenced their underachievement. Six boys in grades 10–12 were included in this sample. Two were African American, one was Hispanic, and three were White. A qualitative research design with a case study approach was used. Data were collected through participant observation, ethnographic interviews, and document reviews. Hébert found two factors that influenced their underachievement: “inappropriate curricular experiences and questionable counseling experiences and a series of family issues” (p. 182). Family issues included problems with siblings, inconsistent role models within the family, and family dysfunction. These students’ peers also valued athletics over academics. Male mentors may help facilitate healthy psychosocial development for gifted males who are facing family adversities or contending with peer groups that do not value academic achievement.
Henfield, M. S., Moore, I. L., & Wood, C. (2008). Inside and outside gifted education programming: Hidden challenges for African American students. Exceptional Children, 74, 433–450.
This qualitative study examined 12 African American gifted students and the perceptions they formed of themselves as participants in gifted programs. The researchers carried out interviews primarily using AOL Instant Messenger. Through questionnaire and interview results, patterns began to emerge. The researchers found that study participants faced challenging issues as a result of being African American gifted students. They made adaptations in order to continue participation in their school’s gifted program and were able to identify positive aspects of participating in the programs. Students experienced challenges dealing with peer influences, deficit ideology, gender, acting White, and acting Black. Students adapted to problems encountered as a result of their participation in gifted programs by practicing academic disengagement and gifted identity distancing. Benefits such as academic rigor, highly skilled teachers, equally skilled peers, future preparedness, and increased opportunities for the future were acknowledged by the students as positive factors that helped keep them in the gifted program.
Kaylor, M., & Flores, M. M. (2007). Increasing academic motivation in culturally and linguistically diverse students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19, 66–89.
According to research, students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have lower rates of high school graduation and university attendance. There is little research regarding interventions to address these issues. The current study compared the effects of two programs designed to increase academic motivation. Forty-seven high school female athletes from culturally and linguistically diverse and economically disadvantaged backgrounds participated in the study. The programs were implemented over a 12-week period, 2 days per week within the school day. One group received instruction using a program that was designed by the school’s physical education faculty. The other group received instruction using the Possible Selves program (Hock, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2003). The researchers investigated the effects of the programs with regard to the students’ level of hope for the future as measured by the Children’s Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1994), records of the students’ grades and number of administrative behavioral referrals, students’ self-reports about their participation, and researchers’ evaluation of the students’ goals. The results did not indicate a difference in the students’ hopes for the future. There was little difference in overall grade point averages and no difference in behavioral referrals between the two groups. The students’ perceptions of their participation in the programs were similar. However, the students in the Possible Selves group indicated that they received more support from an adult during their program, and they reported higher levels of effort toward academics than the comparison group. The most significant finding was a difference in the quality of goals written. The Possible Selves group wrote goals and action plans that were more specific and realistic (Author abstract.)
Citations: Hock, M. F., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2003). Possible selves: Nurturing student motivation. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises, Inc.
Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Danovsky, M., et al. (1994, August). Development and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York.
Kitano, M. K., & DiJiosia, M. (2002). Are Asian and Pacific Americans overrepresented in programs for the gifted? Roeper Review, 24, 76.
This study examined the question: Are all Asian and Pacific Americans (APA) overrepresented in programs for the gifted? Using a large, diverse urban school district, the researchers examined disaggregated data and reported differences among different APA groups. They reported a wide range in percentages of children who qualified with 50.47% of the Chinese represented (above the mean for the district), and 7.32% of Samoan represented (below the mean for the district). Differences may result from socioeconomic status, family education, immigration histories, and linguistic diversity. Certain Asian groups have cultural values that support and perceive education as the major avenue for upper mobility.
Kitano, M. K., & Lewis, R. B. (2007). Examining the relationships between reading achievement and tutoring duration and content for gifted culturally and linguistically diverse students from low-income backgrounds. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30, 295–325.
This study investigated the effects of a tutoring intervention incorporating literature-supported features on the reading achievement of gifted students from low-income backgrounds. The program focused on gifted children from very low-income families in grades 4–5. These students who were on free or reduced-price lunch were identified using the Raven Progressive Matrices, scoring between the 99.6th and 99.8th percentile. A total of 58 children (34 males and 23 females and 12 English learners) were enrolled in the reading seminars, which consisted of teaching six basic comprehension strategies (making connections, questioning, visualizing and imagining, inferring, determining importance, synthesizing) within increasingly levels of complexity. Students received an average of 65 hours of tutoring during the academic year, of which 43 were focused on decoding and reading comprehension. Results indicated that the participating students showed significant gains over one academic year in reading on both the state standardized test and on a classroom fluency measure.
Kitano, M. K., & Pedersen, K. S. (2002). Action research and practical inquiry: Multicultural-content integration in gifted education: Lessons from the field. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 26, 269–289.
The researchers examined how teachers perceived (a) their multicultural goals for their gifted students, (b) obstacles in addressing multicultural content, (c) how gifted students had responded to their multicultural goals, and (d) benefits and challenges of multicultural education. A total of 27 elementary, and 44 middle and high school teachers responded to a one-page survey, a 47 percent response rate. Most of the respondents (77.5%) were teaching gifted students. The most frequently mentioned goals were valuing diversity, contributions of diverse groups, and addressing issues of prejudice, racism, discrimination, and stereotyping. The primary obstacles cited to multicultural education were relevance to district-mandated standards and/or exams and lack of materials. The majority reported that students reacted positively. Following the survey, the researchers gathered implementation information through observations, written reports, and videotapes. They reported that teachers routinely used a variety of fiction and nonfiction literature and art produced by or about people from a variety of cultures; incorporated the history of diverse groups and contemporary social issues; addressed diverse perspectives through curriculum compacting, Socratic questioning, and offering opportunities to pursue their interests; examined how knowledge is constructed; and designed culminating activities that engaged students in social change. Unsuccessful activities didn’t include the student readiness for multicultural activities, were presented in isolation, and needed to provide a healthy emotional distance.
Lohman, D. F. (2005a). Review of Naglieri and Ford (2003): Does the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test identify equal proportions of high-scoring White, Black, and Hispanic students? Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 19–28.
In this article, Lohman refuted Naglieri and Ford’s results in their 2003 article. Lohman suggested that the selected population may not be representative of the NNAT norm group, particularly urban school districts whose students tend to score poorly on ability and achievement tests.
Lohman, D. F. (2005b). The role of nonverbal ability tests in identifying academically gifted students: An aptitude perspective. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 111–138.
Lohman argued that many students who have high levels of ability would be excluded from gifted programs if only nonverbal ability tests were used during the identification process. He further argued that verbal and quantitative reasoning ability, which are similar across ethnic groups, are more likely to predict future academic performance than nonverbal reasoning scores. He concluded that (a) academic giftedness should be defined by evidence of academic accomplishment, (b) all abilities should be measured, (c) with young children reasoning measures should be used, (d) nonverbal measures should be used with other measures, (e) identification tests may be helpful for providing useful information for all students, (f) professionals need to learn how to use correlation tables, (g) discriminations need to made between students with current accomplishment and those who show promise, (h) different cutoff scores need to be used, and (i) professionals need to understand the differences between means and correlations.
Milner, H., & Ford, D. Y. (2007). Cultural considerations in the underrepresentation of culturally diverse elementary students in gifted education. Roeper Review, 29, 166–173.
The purpose of this article was to highlight the underrepresentation of students from diverse racial backgrounds over the years in gifted education. Changes have been attempted by educators, but little has impacted growth in the numbers of diverse students in gifted education. In this article, it was suggested that elementary teachers should reevaluate the interaction they have with students of diversity by implementing differentiation through learning engagement and by providing an open learning environment. The authors proposed that teachers who provide diverse learning experiences will help to highlight students who may have been overlooked previously for participation in gifted programs.
Naglieri, J. A., & Ford, D. Y. (2003). Addressing underrepresentation of gifted minority children using the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT). Gifted Child Quarterly, 47, 155–160.
This study examined the effectiveness of the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT; Naglieri, 1997) in identifying Black and Hispanic students for gifted programs. The sample included 20,270 students in grades from the NNAT standardization sample that were representative of the U.S. population. The NNAT is a brief nonverbal measure of ability. The mean score differences and percentages of children with high standard scores between White and minority groups were small. The authors suggested that the NNAT could help diverse students gain access to gifted programming because it does not emphasize verbal and math ability.
Neumeister, K. L., Adams, C. M., Pierce, R. L., Cassady, J. C., & Dixon, F. A. (2007). Fourth-grade teachers’ perceptions of giftedness: Implications for identifying and serving diverse gifted students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30, 479–499.
Using surveys, the authors attempted to examine the perceptions of giftedness held by teachers of minority or economically disadvantaged students. Specifically, do the perceptions reflect an awareness of the unique issues facing students who have been underrepresented and do they agree about these students’ qualifications for gifted services? Out of 40 fourth-grade teachers who were in schools with a high representation of minorities and teaching a gifted cluster, 27 (68%) completed the survey with 96% of these female and 93% Caucasian. A high percentage of teachers mentioned typical characteristics of gifted students, including self-motivation, independent learner, rapid learning, understanding at a level above the average level, creativity, and reasoning abilities. They also were concerned that many identified students were high achievers but not actually gifted, which demonstrated a more traditional conception of giftedness that is based on top aptitude scores.
Few, if any, teachers mentioned gifted characteristics that are prevalent in minority populations such as oral tradition, movement and verve, communalism and affective characteristics. . . . Only 15 percent of the teachers recognized that boredom or noninterest may be common in gifted students. (p. 486)
Teachers were less likely to notice gifted characteristics in students having a skill deficit in one area, poor work habits, or behavioral or family problems. The authors concluded that the results of the survey indicated a need for more professional development on how giftedness manifests itself in minority and economically disadvantaged populations and on multicultural education. Multicultural education includes
content integration, using examples from different cultures to explain ideas and clarify points, understanding how ethnicity influences knowledge construction, actively reducing prejudice, developing an equity pedagogy that appeals to different learning styles, and creating a student culture that welcomes students from all ethnic backgrounds. (p. 495)
Olszewski-Kubilius, P., & Thomson, D. L. (2010). Gifted programming for poor or minority urban students: Issues and lessons learned. Gifted Child Today, 33(4), 58–64.
This article described Project EXCITE, which is a collaborative program between a university-based gifted center and local school districts designed to prepare gifted minority elementary and middle school students for advanced tracks in math and science in high school. Nominated students scored higher than Stanine 6 on the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test; received a positive recommendation from the school regarding work habits, achievement, ability, and interests; and performed at a reasonably high level on the state-level, criterion-referenced achievement test or the standardized norm-referenced test. On the average, students were 8.6 years old with almost half being on free or reduced lunch. Program components included parent education and support, academic enrichment, individualized support, and evaluation activities. Results showed that most of the 154 students were retained in the program, earned high grades in math and science in school, and performed well on state criterion-referenced tests in math and science. There was a 300% increase of minority children qualifying for an advanced math class in grade 6 after 2 years of involvement in the program.
Pierce, R. L., Adams, C. M., Speirs Neumeister, K. L., Cassady, J. C., Dixon, F. A., & Cross, T. L. (2007). Development of an identification procedure for a large urban school corporation: Identifying culturally diverse and academically gifted elementary students. Roeper Review, 29, 113–118.
The purpose of this study was to describe the identification process a university-school partnership (Project CLUE) used, which resulted in an increase in minority representation in gifted programs. The sample for this study was comprised of second grade public school students and included 58% African American, 30% White, 9% Hispanic, 3% Multiracial, and less than 1% American Indian and Asian and Pacific Islander students. There were 49% girls and 51% boys. Fifty seven% of the students qualified for free lunch and 19% qualified for reduced lunch. The students were given achievement tests, a language-free, culture-fair assessment, and/or a behavior checklist completed by parents and/or teachers. Teacher and participant interviews were also conducted. The addition of the culture-free intelligence test and the behavior checklist placed 26 students in the gifted education program who were not selected through standardized testing alone. This group included eight percent of the African American students and 29% of the Hispanic students. Seventy-seven percent of these 26 students met Lohman’s (2005) assertion that high nonverbal ability scores be accompanied by high accomplishment in an academic domain.
Citation: Lohman, D. F. (2005). The role of nonverbal ability tests in identifying academically gifted students: An aptitude perspective. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 111–138.
Reyes, R., III. (2007). A collective pursuit of learning the possibility to be: The CAMP experience assisting situationally marginalized Mexican-American students to a successful student identity. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18, 618–659.
In the lives of many students of Mexican descent, learning how to be a successful student is elusive because they may not have experienced how to accomplish this in communities with more knowledgeable others and practitioners invested in apprenticing them to this goal. Such students may be living in life and schooling situations that marginalize them from these communities of learning to be successful. This paper looks at how five students of Mexican descent from situationally marginalized lives perceived their learning and changes as students after their first college experience through a support and retention scholarship program (Author abstract.).
Scott, M. S., & Delgado, C. F. (2005). Identifying cognitively gifted minority students in preschool. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 199–210.
This study tracked students who were given measures of cognition through grade school to identify those who were placed in the gifted/talented program. A sample of 262 preschool children from private and public preschools from the Miami/Dade County was included in this study. The researchers identified seven high-performing outliers with their screening instrument. Four of these seven students were Black, one was Hispanic, and two were White. In the first grade, five of these seven students had one or more achievement scores in the 99th percentile. In the second grade, three of these seven students were enrolled in a gifted program. The brief screen used in this study could be used to select potentially gifted minority children for placement in an enriched preschool setting.
Shaunessy, E., McHatton, P. A., Hughes, C., Brice, A., & Ratliff, M. A. (2007). Understanding the experiences of bilingual, Latino adolescents: Voices from gifted and general education. Roeper Review, 29, 174–182.
This study focused on the experiences of bilingual Latino/a adolescents in gifted and general education settings. The sample included eight gifted and eight general education students from one public urban middle school in the southeast. In this study students’ group discussions with a facilitator were videotaped. The students were encouraged to speak both English and Spanish. The data were analyzed using a grounded-theory methodology and emerging themes were coded. The students in the gifted education classes reported having more academically supportive peers, exhibited “a marked degree of assimilation with the majority culture,” whereas the general education students sought out other Latino/a peers, had less confidence in their academic abilities, and “had a heightened awareness of the implications of their ethnic expression” (p. 180). Comments from educators when Spanish was spoken affected students’ feelings of marginalization, and they felt more connected to the Spanish-speaking school personnel. The researchers found that the educational environment seemed to be more supportive for the gifted education students, and they expressed concern that assimilation may be a prerequisite for gifted identification if schools are not more supportive of culturally diverse students.
Spielhagen, F. R. (2006). Closing the achievement gap in math: The long-term effects of eighth-grade algebra. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18, 34–59.
This study examined the long-term academic outcomes for students who did or did not enroll in eighth-grade algebra in one district that implemented an initiative to increase access. Data analysis involved a sample of 2,634 students who were divided into two groups: those who had been selected for algebra in eighth grade and those who, by default of not being selected, studied algebra in ninth grade. Descriptive statistics revealed that selection for eighth-grade algebra was disproportionate by ethnicity with Black students comprising less than 10% of the early algebra population although they comprised 20% of the overall school population. Students who completed algebra in the eighth grade stayed in the mathematics pipeline longer and attended college at greater rates than those who did not.
Swanson, J. D. (2006). Breaking through assumptions about low-income, minority gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 50, 11–25.
This article describes Project Breakthrough, a demonstration project designed to challenge assumptions and attitudes of teachers in high-poverty, high-minority schools. Project staff worked for 3 years with three South Carolina elementary schools training teachers in the use of language arts and science gifted education curriculum for all of their classes. Data sources included achievement scores, observations, teacher logs, questionnaires, and interviews. Four additional students were identified as gifted, student achievement increased, and many teachers demonstrated attitudinal shifts. Teachers increased their understanding of how to provide a rigorous curriculum for their classes.
Uresti, R., Goertz, J., & Bernal, E. M. (2002). Maximizing achievement for potentially gifted and talented and regular minority students in a primary classroom. Roeper Review, 25, 27–31.
This study examined how the Autonomous Learner Model (ALM) could be used in identifying gifted English language learners. The ALM was used in one first-grade classroom of 24 Hispanic children; 12 were native Spanish speakers. None were identified as gifted and all of the students qualified for free lunch. Orientation, individual development, and enrichment activities were implemented over a 24-week period. The students then were given standardized tests and all scored within the average range. Five students were nominated for the gifted program and three were selected to attend the magnet gifted and talented elementary school.
VanTassel-Baska, J., Johnson, D., & Avery, L. D. (2002). Using performance tasks in the identification of economically disadvantaged and minority gifted learners: Findings from Project STAR. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46, 110–123.
This paper discussed developing performance assessment tasks in the identification process of more economically disadvantaged and minority students for gifted programs in one state. The performance assessment tasks were field tested with more than 4,000 students at primary and intermediate grades. A group of 518 students was identified who would not have qualified for gifted programs using traditional measures (12% African-American and 14% low-income). Project STAR provided an effective and innovative approach to identifying more low-SES and minority students for gifted programs.
Worrell, F. C. (2007). Ethnic identity, academic achievement, and global self-concept in four groups of academically talented adolescents. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51, 23–38.
In this quantitative study, attitudes of gifted African American, Asian American, Hispanic, and White secondary students were compared on ethnic identity (EI) and other group orientation (OGO) by using the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. The literature reviewed indicated that a minority student’s social identity might have a negative impact on academic achievement. In addition, it was noted that the academic environment does not have to interact negatively with the student’s reference group. The author suggested that continued research on cultural identity and academic achievement would assist in successful interventions.
Yoon, S. Y., & Gentry, M. (2009). Racial and ethnic representation in gifted programs. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53, 121–136.
This article examined the “overrepresentation” of gifted Asian American students in gifted programs and the issues these students face during the “acculturation processes.” Overall, the authors found that White Americans and Asian Americans have historically been overrepresented in gifted programs while African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans have been underrepresented. The data indicated that the Asian American gifted population is overrepresented when considering the ethnic group as a whole, but not when the Asian gifted population numbers are examined in sub-groups. The authors also reviewed and discussed factors that play a role in the under- or overidentification of gifted Asian students and examined their academic attitudes and achievement.
Amy McNamara is a graduate student in the Department of Educational Psychology at Baylor University. She has presented at several conferences and has research interests in the areas of gifted identification and programming. Amy currently teaches gifted and talented students at Woodgate Intermediate in Midway ISD. She can be reached at amy.mcnamara@midwayisd.org.
Krystal Goree, Ph.D., is the Director of Professional Practice in the School of Education at Baylor University, where she also teaches courses in gifted and talented education. She is the author of numerous publications, a frequent presenter at state and national conferences, and primary investigator of several grants. She is currently Chair of the Texas Education Agency Commissioner’s Advisory Council on the Education of Gifted/Talented Students, Editor for TEMPO, Senior Editor for Gifted Child Today, and President-Elect of the Texas Directors of Field Experience. Her past professional experiences include serving as classroom teacher, GT district program coordinator, gifted education specialist at Education Service Center Region 12 in Waco, TX, and elementary school principal in China Spring ISD. Krys is a past-president of the Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented. She can be reached at Krystal Goree, Baylor University, School of Education, One Bear Place # 97304, Waco, TX 76798, 254.710.4172, Krystal_Goree@baylor.edu.
Susan K. Johnsen, Ph.D., is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Educational Psychology at Baylor University. She directed the Ph.D. program and programs related to gifted and talented education. She is past-president of the Texas Association for Gifted and Talented and president of The Association for the Gifted, Council for Exceptional Children. She has written more than 100 articles, monographs, technical reports, and books related to gifted education. She is a frequent presenter at international, national, and state conferences. She is editor of Gifted Child Today and serves on the editorial boards of Gifted Child Quarterly, Journal for Secondary Gifted Education, and Roeper Review. She is the author of Identifying Gifted Students: A Practical Guide; coauthor of the Independent Study Program and three tests that are used in identifying gifted students: Test of Mathematical Abilities for Gifted Students (TOMAGS), Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (TONI-4), and Screening Assessment for Gifted Students (SAGES-2).
